The History of Tae Kwon Do
Pamela Kearney M.D.
Unarmed combat and defense maneuvers have been used by man as long as he has needed to defend himself from wild animals and those of his own kind. These maneuvers have evolved over the millennia as the reasons for their existence changed. It only seems logical that the modern art and sport of Tae Kwon Do, (also: Taekwondo, T'aekwondo) which has already seen changes in the 40+ years of its official existence, would look different than the arts of its roots.
Tae Kwon Do (the "way" or "art" of kicking and punching) is the official sport of Korea, and as of the year 2000 is a full medal Olympic Sport. Thousands of students compete in the sport and study the art in dojangs worldwide. How we got to this point is a long and interesting story that carries us back to at least 50BC and beyond. Unfortunately, some of the most ancient parts of the story are debated even among experts, but what isn't debated is the fact that Tae Kwon Do has influences from several arts and it's history is intimately tied to the history of Korea.
In this paper, I will set the stage by exploring the most ancient roots of martial arts in general and then some of the most ancient history of Korea. I will then explore the Three Kingdoms Era of Korean history, followed by the Korean Dynasties of Koryo and Chosen. The influence of the Japanese occupation of Korea through the end of World War II will be discussed, and finally the development of modern Tae Kwon Do.
The Ancient Roots of the Martial Arts:
There is evidence of unarmed combat in the ancient history of most of the major civilizations of the world. In hieroglyphics of Egyptian pyramids dated about 4000BC, there is evidence of techniques that resemble boxing and wrestling. Ancient Cretans and Greeks took these techniques a step further and held organized competitions in the form of the Olympic Games, first held in 1580BC. The Greeks combined the boxing and wrestling techniques into a single fighting style known as Pakration (all powers), a brutal game with no rules that was later used by the Roman gladiators in the circus arenas. Pakration and the Pyrrhic Dance (a war dance similar to poomse) are said to have influenced certain arts from India.1
Some of the first written records of unarmed combat are out of India and date to about 2600BC. It is also thought that meditation and breathing techniques of yoga, along with the beliefs of Zen Buddhism made significant contributions to the more mental aspects of the Asian martial arts. There existed an Indian warrior class known as the "Kshatriya" which brings to mind the European knight, the Japanese Samurai, and indeed, the Hwarang of the Korean Silla dynasty. Two fighting styles are credited as being developed in India: "Vajramushti"and "Nata" the later of which translates to mean "dancer" or "performer." It is the Indian Buddhist priest, Bodhidharma (who traveled to China as a missionary to correct what he perceived to be the wayward Buddhist beliefs of the Chinese) who is credited by some to have been the originator the martial arts. It is said that he developed these techniques to strengthen the Buddhist monks so that they could pray and mediate for longer periods, as well as defend themselves against highwaymen. This version of the history is rejected by some prominent historians, both Chinese and Korean, who point to evidence that suggests the existence of Kung fu in China and an art similar to one known as Tang So Do in Korea many years before Bodhidharma's birth. The indigenous Chinese art of Kempo (also: Ch'uan-fa) may also existed prior to that time. One reference referred to Bodhidharma's techniques being combined with Kempo to form the Chinese art of Shaolin Ch'uan-fa. 1
There are those that hold that the Chinese martial arts have their beginnings in the hygienic exercises practiced since approximately 2600BC by people in that country. Emperor Yu of the Hsia Dynasty went as far as ordering his people to exercise in a sequenced fashion. A bloody fighting style known as "Sumo" was introduced in China by Mongolian invaders. It later came under the influence of a kicking game known as Kemuri causing the development of "Shubaku," a name which is still used to refer to Chinese Martial Arts. A famous Chinese surgeon named Hua T'o (who is credited by some to be the first to use anesthetics) developed a set of calisthenics based on animal movements that had an important influence in the development of Kempo (Ch'uan-fa). Chang Sanfeng, a student Bodhidharma's monastary, added gentle moves to Kempo, supposedly patterned after the way cranes fight. This gentle form of Kempo is thought to be the basis of the Japanese arts of Judo and Jujitsu. Kempo was widely practiced in China and competitions were commonplace. It was also used by unarmed peasants in several documented rebellions. After the loss of the Boxer Rebellion in 1896 AD, Kempo was basically eradicated in China. However, by this time Kempo had spred throughout a large portion of Asia, including Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand and the Ryukyu archipelago, the most influential of which was Okinawa. 1
Kempo was introduced to Okinawa during the Chinese T'ang Dynasty sometime between 618AD and 906AD. It involved into a fighting style based only on the use of the hands known as "Tode". After the Japanese disarmed the Okinawans in 1609, farm tools began being used as weapons: "tonfa (windlass handle), "bo" (walking staff), "sai" (the hand plow). Okinawan Kempo and Tode were united into a style of fighting called Okinawa-te. After studying Kempo and bo fighting in China, Sakugawa began teaching an art he called "Karate-no-sakugawa." This is the first known use of the name Karate in reference to a martial art. At the time, karate meant "Chinese" or "T'ang" hand or technique. The ideagram "kara" did not come to mean "empty" until 1936, thus making karate translate to "empty hand." After Okinawa came under Japanese Control in 1879, Karate spread to mainland Japan. 1
The significant history of empty hand techniques in Japan begins in 23AD with a wrestler by the name of Nomi-no-Sukune, who is considered the founder of "Jujitsu", the first true Japanese art. In about 200AD, Sumo was introduced to Japan about the same time that a brutal fighting style called Chikara Kurabe develped. Jujitsu, involving strangle holds, locks, and throws, replaced the punching and kicking techniques of Kumi-Uchi (a less brutal form of Chikara Kurabe) when body armor began making those techniques impractical in the seventh century. Kempo was introduced to Japan in the mid 1600's. About this time Jigoro Kano modified existing techniques in developing "Judo", which exceeded Jujitsu in 1886, after a competition in Tokyo. 1
As we have seen, the most ancient of the empty hand techniques have been around as long as there has been recorded history, and probably before then. They developed practically everywhere that man existed and their histories clash and combine with the cultures of the peoples that practiced them. As we are focused on the Korean art of Tae Kwon Do, we need to look more closely at the history of Korea itself to better understand how the art began to take the shape that we know today.
Ancient Korean History
Korea is a peninsula that is connected in the north to mainland China. China also lies to the west across the Yellow Sea. To the east is the Sea of Japan and to the south is the Korean Strait, which separates Korea from Japan. The terrain of the peninsula varies, but notable are the some of the mountains. Indeed the word "Korea" is thought by some to come from a phrase which means "high mountains and sparkling streams."2 The topography of the land influenced the Korean people over the centuries and thus affected the evolution of martial arts in that country.
The direct ancestors of the modern Korean people are thought to be Tungusic tribes who migrated from Central Asia between 6000 and 4000 BC. Archeologists have unearthed stone tools used by the peoples during this time. Too-suk-sool (Korean stone throwing arts) have survived into modern times. This was followed by the Bronze Age. The span of the Bronze Age varies from place to place, but it is believed to have started sometime in the 9th century BC.3 During this time period in Korea, the people began to come together in walled town-states and villages.
As time went on, these town-states would join together into confederations that would be loosely ruled by a central figure, a "king". There were many, including the Puyo, Ye, and Mahan states, among others. The most important of these was Old Chosen (also: Ko Chosen, Ko Joseon) which is considered to be the first ancient Korean State. The time that Old Chosen actually began is unknown, but different myths place it between 2332BC and 1122BC.3
It is known that Old Chosen was powerful enough to be threatening to China by the fourth century BC. Hostility between the two entities became common place under the Chinese Yen Dynasty. Change in Old Chosen, ironically had its roots in the fall of the Chinese Yen Dynasty to Liu Pang, who founded the Han Dynasty around 200BC. One of the refuges from this conflict was a man named Wiman who fled to Old Chosen with a band of followers. King Chun of Old Chosen put him in charge of protecting the northwest border of the confederation. Wiman eventually turned on King Chun and overthrew him and neighboring confederations. "Wiman Chosen" thus became the first "real" Korean power and controlled basically the entire border between the Korean peninsula and mainland China.4
About a hundred years later, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty launched a full scale war against Wiman Chosen, which was now ruled by Wiman's grandson, King Ugo. Wiman Chosen fell around 108BC. The Han Chinese divided the kingdom into four militarily governed districts -"commanderies." Within 25 years, the Han Dynasty began withdrawing the commanderies. By the middle of the first century BC, the last was withdrawn, marking the beginning of the "Three Kingdoms Era" of Korean history. 4
It seems inevitable that types of unarmed combat would have been practiced and used in the centuries involving Old Chosen and Wiman Chosen. Different tribes participated in recreational games and had martial art warrior competitions during certain ritual seasons. These contests included "Yongko" in the Puyo state and "Muchon" in the Ye and Mahan states. One reference refers to ancient Korean warriors training in a military art of "Farando" (which combined head, elbow and foot techniques). The ancients used "borrowed strength" and "space shortening" to train.3 It only makes sense that this period would form the foundation for the developing martial arts of the Three Kingdoms era. Modern Tae Kwon Do traditionally traces its roots to the Three Kingdoms era in Korea and the some of first records of martial arts can be found during this time. We will now turn our attention to this pivotal age.
The Three Kingdoms Era
After the withdrawal of the Han Chinese from the Korean Peninsula, there began a period of almost nine centuries that is commonly referred to as the period of "Three Kingdoms." There were not literally three kingdoms throughout this time period, but three dominated the political and military landscape. It was a period of significant turmoil, with many military conflicts and changing alliances. The kingdoms were Koguryo (37 BC ~ 668 AD) located to the north, Paekje (also: Baekje, Paekch) (18 BC ~ 660 AD) to the southwest and Silla (also: Shilla) (57 BC ~ 936 AD) to the southeast. It is interesting that references note the common form of dress throughout the three kingdoms during this period consisted of loose pants and a jacket with a belt tied around the waist. In Paekje and Silla, the rank of the military officers was indicated by the color of the belt. In Silla, rank was also denoted by different colored trim on the lapel of the jacket.5
Koguryo was the largest of the three kingdoms and geographically encompassed the border of the peninsula with the Chinese. For this same reason, at least at the start of this era, it was also the strongest militarily and was likewise the most aggressive. From the foundation of the kingdom it was dedicated to expelling a Chinese settlement in its territory at Nang-nang, which took until the fourth century AD. After this had been accomplished, Koguryo concentrated on attempting to control Silla and Paekje.6 Given that the military was such a prominent part of the culture of this kingdom, one can understand the development of an elite class of warriors individually known as Sonbae (the group was known as Chouisonin). These individuals were chosen during festivals twice a year. The young men competed in several events, including archery, sword dancing and Subak/Taekyon. They were known for their virtue and bravery. During peace time they were dedicated to the benefit of society, helping build the infrastructure of the kingdom and serving as teachers to the people. It is thought that the Sonbae were the major influence to the famous Hwarang of Silla, both in ideology and organizational structure.7
It is apparent that the martial art of Subak (also SooBak, Soo Bakh) or Taekyon (also: Tae kyon, Taek kyon, Taekkyon, T'aeggyon) was very prominent through a good portion of the Koguryo kingdom. Often the terms "Subak" and "Taekyon are used interchangeably with one another. It is possible, however, that they may have been somewhat different. It is reported by some that Subak apparently referred to "hand techniques" while Taekyon referred more to "foot techniques."6 However, yet another reference states that Subak also referred to foot techniques.11 References disagree as to when each term was used, and if and when one replaced another. At least one has "Subak" being used throughout the period of the Three Kingdoms, being changed to Taekyon during the Koryo dynasty.8 However, a different reference states the opposite.9 Yet a third admits the terms were found together.6 Given these inconsistencies, for the purposes of this paper I have chosen to use the term "Taekyon" to describe the arts of this time, as it is the one which most resembles the art of which this paper is exploring.
Tae Kwon Do historians often point to the archeological remains of some temples and tombs as evidence of eerie resemblance of the ancient arts to modern Tae Kwon Do. There are references that attempt to refute the relationship and give other explanations for the resemblance to the more modern martial arts. Whatever one believes, the similarities warrant mention when discussing the history of Tae Kwon Do. The most famous were two royal tombs discovered in 1935 in what is now Manchuria, but was once part of the territory of Koguryo. It is assumed they date somewhere between 3 and 427AD. The one in Muyon-chong has murals depicting what could be interpreted as two men engaging in Taekyon. The one in Kakshu-chong has paintings on the ceiling showing two men apparently dancing or wrestling.3
Paekje was greatly influenced by the Chinese both in culture and its government system. It never appeared to have developed as much of an individual character when compared to the other two kingdoms, although it was culturally advanced.6 It did, however play a role in the conflicts that engulfed the region during the nine century span of the Three Kingdoms Era. Martial arts were a part of the culture of Paekje, and there are references to competitions being held. Some references refer to Taekyon, as well as Sirum (also Ssirum) which was a Korean form of wrestling.5
Silla was the first kingdom to develop, but initially was the smallest and weakest. The land was agriculturally fertile, and in the beginning the people were peaceful.6 This had to change as the small kingdom faced challenges from Koguryo, Paekje, China, and Japan. Around 400AD Silla formed an alliance with Korguryo to fend off an attack by Paekje. It is likely that Taekyon was fully introduced to Silla during this time, most likely by the Sonbae. Likewise, it is logical that the Sonbae would have significant influence the development of the famed Hwarangdo (individual members are referred to as the Hwarang) which began to take shape as Silla began to become a military power. The Hwarang became very skilled in Taekyon, and are thought to have taught and spread it extensively.
Alliances changed among the kingdoms several times, but the fascinating details are really beyond the scope of this paper. It is important to note that Silla eventually formed an alliance with the Tang Dynasty of China to defend against Paekje after a request for assistance from Koguryo was denied. Silla and the Tang successfully overthrew Paekje in approximately 660AD. Having secured the southern part of the Korean peninsula, the alliance then coordinated an attack on Koguryo, which was overthrown approximately 668AD.4 When the Tang set up commandaries in Paekje and Koguryo, Silla went to war again - this time to expel the Chinese. Once this was accomplished, the Kingdoms of the Korean peninsula were united under one government for the first time. For almost 3 centuries there was a relative period of peace.
The Hwarangdo
The Hwarangdo was formed by the 24th king of Silla, Chin Hung, during the 5th Century. Hwarangdo translates in English to "Way" (do) of flowering (hwa) youth or manhood (rang). Its members were young men (sometimes as young as twelve) chosen from among the elite nobility of Silla. They were handsome and with the physical ability to become great soldiers. Potential members were extensively trained in philosophy, culture, and religion. Those who excelled in these areas were thought to possess the inner qualities necessary to join this ultra elite group. The youth were not born into this group, they had to earn their way. Likewise, they were not members for life, but left the ranks of the group when they became older. It is thought the Hwarang were the forerunners of the Japanese Samuri.10
As one would expect, the young men were trained to fight in battle and learned Taekyon, in addition to mastering the weapons of their time. As was common in ancient Korea, annual festivals were held in Silla which allowed the Hwarang to demostrate their martial arts skills. Their leg muscles became very well developed as they trained extensively in the mountains, and thus it is logical they would add strong kicking styles to Taekyon. One reference categorically credits the Hwarang with developing a system of foot fighting called "subak-gi" and states that this is the origin of the emphasis of kicking techniques in the Korean martial arts.10
These young men were not just strong of body. Despite being legendary warriors, their bravery and battlefield finesse were only a part of the Hwarangdo. The arts of the time were considered an essential part of their lives, including poetry, song, philosophy and history. They lived by a strict sense of honor and had five codes of conduct that form the basis of the commandments of modern day Tae Kwon Do:
Loyalty to your country
Obedience to your parents
Loyalty to your friends
Never retreat in battle
Never kill anything unjustly
These commandments were combined with a list of nine virtues: humanity, honor, courtesy, knowledge, trust, friendship, kindness, wisdom, loyalty, and courage, to round out the framework for inner strength and harmony that these young men strived to achieve in order to balance the physical skills they possessed. 10, 11
It is this strength of mind and spirit was this that set them apart from other soldiers and made them the most respected and revered warriors in Korea's history. The art (as opposed to the sport) of Tae Kwon Do truly has its roots, and indeed its very foundation, from the example that these young men set in Silla in the sixth and seventh centuries AD. It is this framework that was bequeathed to modern day Tae Kwon Do martial artists. The code was to those young men, and should be to us, a way of life. It is what sets us apart from other people who learn martial arts solely for self defense, exercise, stress relief, or intimidation.
After Silla defeated the Tang Chinese, there was a relative period of peace for approximately three centuries. The Hwarang had less reason to use their skills as warriors, and became known more for their artistic pursuits. As the Silla Dynasty gave way to the Koryo Dynasty, the Three Kingdoms period of Korean history came to a close. The golden age of the Hwarangdo was just a memory. However, it did not end before Taekyon had spread through much of Korea.
We will now turn to the periods of the Koryo and Chosen Dynasties of Korean history.
The Koryo Dynasty
The Koryo Dynasty was founded sometime between 918 and 935 AD, depending on the reference read.5, 11, 12 It was founded by a well educated and powerful warlord by the name of Wang Kon who chose the name "Koryo" based on an abbreviation for Koguryo. The name "Korea" is derived from "Koryo". Political reforms abounded and Buddhism continued to be the dominant religion of the country.12
There is much evidence that Taekyon flourished during the centuries of the Koryo dynasty, although the purpose for its existence fluctuated though out this time. The beginning of the dynasty, which was a relative period of peacefulness, found Taekyon to be widely used by the populace as a source of recreation and fitness. It became a popular sport activity and again references to contests and competitions are made. Evidently the format of the competitions became more uniform with elements of modern sparring (kyorugi) and breaking (kyokpa).12 The contests were even enjoyed by the royalty and there are historical references to the rulers attending Taekyon competitions.12, 13
Taekyon reached its most popular point in the Koryo Dynasty during the reign of King Uijong (1147 -1170). Military conflicts were more commonplace and the Mongols were gaining power. Koryo was threatened and the focus of Taekyon once again became more martial in nature. The last century of the dynasty saw the control of Koryo come under the hands of Kublai Khan's Mongolian Empire. This period saw conflicts with the Japanese, Chinese, and internal guerilla warfare. 12
The introduction of gunpowder and other more modern weapons of war brought a decline of the need for Taekyon as a military tool. Internal political conflicts further caused a decline in attention to the sport and competitions. The common people lost interest and Taekyon was relegated to the role of a folk game.12
The stage is thus set to explore the transition to the Chosen Dynasty, where Taekyon's emphasis eroded even further.
The Chosen Dynasty
The Chosen Dynasty (also: Choson, Chosun, Joseon) is very often referred to as the "Yi" Dynasty which is the name reportedly given to the period by the Japanese occupiers who ended the dynasty. I have chosen to use "Chosen" as opposed to "Yi" given that the focus of this paper is a Korean martial art. The Dynasty was founded by General Yi Song Gye (also: Yi Songye) in 1392 AD and he became known as King T'aejo. The early Dynasty had strong ties with the Ming Dyansty of China, and thus the Chinese influenced the culture of Chosen in many ways. King T'aejo was a strong follower of Confucianism, which places priority on academic and artistic learning. From the top down in society the emphasis became mathematics, sciences and art. The time period has been called an "Age of Enlightenment" in the history of Korea because of the amount of advancement made in these areas. It was felt that the sophisticated people in society should spend time reading classic literature or engaging in arts of different kinds. Society began to frown on strenuous activity, considering it to be "low class" 14, 11
Taekyon began to suffer as a result. Over the centuries of this Dynasty it became to be considered by the common people a tool of thugs and lowlifes. It was used by men to settle scores or to gamble with concubines. Many children were forbidden to practice it and were punished if caught.15 Society's attitude greatly affected the military of Chosen in a negative way. Morale suffered greatly, and the defense of the country was vastly weakened.14
However bleak this picture may seem, some contributions to Taekyon were accomplished during this time. The most notable is the classic book on Korean martial arts, Muyedobo-tongji. It was begun in 1790 AD by General Lee Duck Mu and scholars Back Je Ga and Back Dong So. There were several volumes covering martial training, equipment and uniforms, skills for horsemen, use of weapons and empty hand techniques. The fourth volume, which describes the hand techniques, contains drawings of 38 motions appearing to be similar to modern movements and forms of Tae Kwon Do. It seems the book, which became a military training manual, renewed some interest in Taekyon. It may have been responsible for the survival of the art through this period.14
It is also thought the teaching of Taekyon began to go "underground." The skills were passed from father to son, from master to student in a secretive manner. It also appears that some of the Buddhist Monks also continued to study the martial arts. This is evidenced by tales of local bands of guerillas and monks who defended their local areas against Japanese invaders with "supernatural techniques".14
Over the course of the centuries of the Chosen Dynasty, there were several invasions, including two by the Japanese and one by the Manchurians, which were successfully repelled. As time passed and the military weakened, these victories could not be sustained. Internal rebellions further weakened the country and both Japan and China sent troops in to "protect" Chosen. Japan was victorious over China in 1895 in a war to control Chosen. Afterwards, it reneged on a promise to give Chosen freedom, causing Russia to challenge Japan. The Japanese were again the victors in 1905 and were recognized as the controlling force in the area by the United States that same year. Chosen was officially annexed by the Japanese in 1910 and King Sunjong was forced to yield his throne and country. One final attempt by the Chosen people to shake off the Japanese was made in an ill fated Declaration of Independence in 1919, but thousands of protesters were killed by the Japanese and the rebellion was defeated. 14
The period of Japanese occupation of Korea probably marks the most difficult time for Taekyon, however, it does mark the start of the "modern history" of Tae Kwon Do. This bridge between the ancients and the beginning of the art that we know today will be the next time period explored.
The Japanese Occupation
After Chosen was annexed in 1910, the Japanese attempted total control over the Korean society. The Korean language was outlawed. Native forms of dress were forbidden and the national festivals were banned. The education system was restructured to teach Japanese ways and Korean books were burned. The motive was to destroy the Korean culture and completely assimilate the people and the land to the Japanese way. This, in theory, would reduce the chance of rebellion and give the Japanese access to the natural resources of the Korean landscape as well as a geographical launching point for an attack on China. 5, 9, 15
This subversion of the Korean culture extended to the martial arts. All martial arts were banned from use by the common man. Taekyon, being native to Chosen, was expressly forbidden. Some Taekyon masters were taken to Japan and forced to train the military in their skills. Some fled, relocating to China, as well as other countries. Yet others went into hiding, retreating to secluded Buddhist monasteries to continue their martial art studies. It is apparent that the secret system of training begun during the Chosen Dynasty continued through this dark period, keeping Taekyon active. It is theorized that the ban on the art made the masters even more determined to keep it alive and to pass it on to their students. 5, 9, 15
As history moved toward the onset of World War II, conditions worsened for the Korean people. Thousands of men were conscripted into the Japanese army and many of the girls were forced into service as "comfort women" to the troops. Hundreds of thousands were transported to Japan to work in heavy industry and mining in support of the war effort. The oppression continued until the liberation of Korean at the end of the WWII in 1945. 15
The turmoil in the political landscape made changes in Taekyon inevitable. The martial arts masters began returning to their native country. Those who spent time in China brought back some influences from Kung-fu. The greatest influence from this time would obviously be the addition of techniques from the Japanese art of Karate.15 It is reported that the quick, more linear movements in Tae Kwon Do (as opposed to the more circular ones) comes from the karate influence introduced from this time period.16
In 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union divided Korea into two parts, the Republic of Korea ("South Korea" - a democratic country) and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea ("North Korea" - a communist country). It remains divided to this day, despite a three year "Korean War" began when the North invaded the South in 1950.15
The liberation from Japan marks the beginning of the modern history of Tae Kwon Do in the form of the art and sport that we practice today. We finally turn our attention to the most recent chapter of the story.
The Modern History of Tae Kwon Do
After the liberation of Korea, there were at least four Japanese martial arts known in Korea. Two of them, Yudo (Judo) and Yusul (Jujutsu) continued to be practiced without significant change. The other two changed dramatically and became more Korean than Japanese. The first, Komdo (Kendo) developed into the Korean art of Hapikdo, and the last, Kongsudo (Karate-do) would develop into Tae Kwon Do. 15 <;/p>
Shortly after the liberation, several organized martial arts schools know as kwans developed, each teaching its own version of Kongsudo. Subsequently others were established, but most were off shoots of these original schools. The five original kwans were as follows:
Chong Do Kwon (also Chung Do Kwan, Ch'ongdokwan) founded by Grandmaster Lee Won Kuk in 1945. He was succeeded by Grandmaster Duk Dung Son, and the school became the largest in Korea. Grandmaster Jhoon Goo Rhee, the father of American Tae Kwon Do, was one of his first black belts. He also gave Grandmaster/General Choi his fourth Dan certificate, although it appears the two had a dispute resulting in the revocation of the certificate. General Choi eventually founded Oh Do Kwan, an offshoot of Chong Do Kwan, and later came to be head of the parent kwan.
Moo Duk Kwan (also Mudokkwan) established in 1945 by Grandmaster Hwang Kee (also known as Ki-Chan Hang)
Yun Moo Kwan, which later became known as Ji Do Kwan (also Ch'idokwan) established in 1946 by Grandmaster Chung Sang Sup.
Chang Moo Kwan (also Changmukwan) established in 1946 by Grandmaster Yoon Byung In.
Song Moo Kwan (also Sangmukwan) founded in 1946 by Grandmaster Ro Byung Jik.
Others included Chi Do Kwan, Kang Du Kwan, Jung Do Kwan. Each of the Kwans purported to teach traditional Taekyon, each emphasized different aspects of Subak/Taekyon, and different names for the resulting styles emerged including: Subak do, Kwon bop, Kong Soo Do, Tae Soo Do, and Dang Soo Do.17
After an early attempt (1947) at unification of the kwans was unsuccessful, the Grandmasters of the original kwans met again in 1953 and merged their school's styles under the common name of Tae Soo Do. In April 1955, a special board of instructors, historians, and society leaders convened and determined that the name should be changed to Tae Kwon Do. This was not necessarily a harmonious meeting and evidently there remained some animosity among the founders. A couple of rival organizations developed, interestingly called the Korea Tang Soo Do Association (or Tae Soo Do Association) and the Korea Kong Soo Do Association (or the Soo Bakh Do Association). After some debate and petitions, they were finally united under the name of the Korea Tae-Kwon-Do Union in 1959. However, the true initiation of the organization is considered to have occurred in 1961 when the name was changed to the Korea Tae-Soo-Do Association.16, 17
The association became an affiliate of the Korea Amateur Sports Association in 1962. In early 1963, President Park Chung Hee decreed that the government would only recognize black belts certified by the Korea Tae Soo Do Association. In October of 1963, Tae Kwon Do became an official event for the first time in the 44th National Athletic Meet. In 1965, then Association president Grandmaster/General Choi convinced the organization to change its name to the Korea Tae Kwon Do Association (KTA).17 In 1971, the president of Korea declared Tae Kwon Do to be the national sport. The Kukkiwon was completed in 1972 and serves as the world headquarters for Tae Kwon Do and its "official dojang." In 1973 the first World Tae Kwon Do Championship was held there. In 1977 nine of the largest kwans in Korea voted to recognize the Kukkiwon as the sole black belt promotional body for Tae Kwon Do. Until that time, students who reached the level of black belt would be issued both an "official certificate" and one from their individual kwan.18
It didn't take long for the popularity of Tae Kwon Do to spread throughout Korea and dojangs began to appear everywhere. Masters were sent internationally to give demonstrations and to teach and the popularity began to spread world wide. In 1966 General Choi founded the International Tae Kwon Do Federation (ITF) in Seoul, and then moved the headquarters first to Canada, and then to Vienna, Austria in 1985.18 In 1973 the World Tae Kwon Do Federation (WTF) was founded. It is made of the National Governing Bodies (NGB's) of Tae Kwon Do in the individual countries. The KTA is the NGB for Korea and the United States Tae Kwon Do Union (USTU) is the NGB for the USA. The headquarters of the WTF is the Kukkiwon.16, 18 Attempts over the years to join the ITF and WTF have failed. Even so, Tae Kwon Do's popularity continued to grow. 18
A lobbying effort ensued to get Tae Kwon Do tapped as an Olympic Sport. In 1980 the International Olympic Committee recognized the WTF. Fittingly, Tae Kwon Do became and Olympic demonstration sport at the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games in Korea. It became a full metal Olympic sport at the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games in Australia.16 More recently, there has been some concerning news regarding the state of Olympic Tae Kwon Do competition in the United States. The United States Olympic Committee (USOC) expressed concerns regarding the USTU's financial management. A de-certification hearing was held the first week in February after a six month long dispute over the USTU's financial problems. USTU President Lee Sang submitted his resignation last week effective in April of 2004. It is thought that the United States will have a Tae Kwon Do Olympic team as the USOC is expected to field athletes for the Athens games.19 The final chapter of this story has yet to be written.
Despite the turbulence over control of the Olympic Team, Tae Kwon Do in the US continues to flourish. The story of American Tae Kwon Do begins with Grandmaster Jhoon Rhee, who is generally considered to be the father of Tae Kwon Do in the United States. He first came to Texas for military training in the mid 1950's. He returned to attend the San Marcos Southwest Texas State College in 1957 and started a dojang there. He did the same when he transferred to the University of Texas in Austin. In 1962 he moved to Washington, DC and became a professional instructor.20 In addition to being a respected teacher, he was evidently also quite a businessman. He advertised on television and had his students march in parades, among other things. This spread the reputation of Tae Kwon Do and competitions further spread the recognition of the art. It has grown to be one of the most popular martial arts in the United States.20
Tae Kwon Do in the form that we know today has but a small resemblance to the ancient arts of its roots. Indeed, we have already seen stylistic changes occur since the Korean kwans united under the name of Tae Kwon Do in 1955. It is only logical that the sport is ever evolving, even before our own eyes. The art, however, has remained more stable, with ideals that have been consistent since the days of the Hwarangdo. The actual commandments themselves may have changed, but the concepts are the same:
Loyalty to your country
Respect your parents
Loyalty to your spouse
Be on good terms with your brothers and sisters
Loyalty to your friends
Respect your elders
Loyalty to your school and teachers
Never kill anything unjustly
Never retreat in battle
Indomitable spirit
Always finish what you begin
The tenets are also remarkably similar to that of the Hwarangdo: Courtesy, Integrity, Perseverance, Self Control and Indomitable Spirit.
If the Tae Kwon Do practitioners of today and tomorrow take seriously the commandments and tenets, they will be able to stay of One Mind, One Body and One Spirit.
And they will remain, Undefeatable.
References:
tkdtudor.com/02taekwondo/TKDhistory/02Beginnings.htm
tkdtudor.com/02taekwondo/TKDhistory/03Geography.htm
tkdtudor.com/02taekwondo/TKDhistory/04Ancient.htm
Whang SC, Whang JC, Saltz B. The State of the Art: Taekwondo: Broadway Books, 1999
Sundo.co.nz/history.html
tkdtudor.com/02taekwondo/TKDhistory/05Kingdoms.htm
tkdtudor.com/02taekwondo/TKDhistory/06SubukSonbae.htm
tkdtudor.com/02taekwondo/TKDhistory/08 KoryoDynasty
worldtaekwondo.com/history.htm
tkdtudor.com/02taekwondo/TKDhistory/07SubakHwarang.htm
msu.edu/user/spock/history.htm
tkdtudor.com/02taekwondo/TKDhistory/08KoryoDynasty.htm
geocities.com/colosseum/Rink/5289/officialwtfhistory.htm
tkdtudor.com/02taekwondo/TKDhistory/09ChosunDynasty.htm
tkdtudor.com/02taekwondo/TKDhistory/10ModernTKD.htm
barrel.net/history.html
tkdtudor.com/02taekwondo/TKDhistory/12TKDDevelopment
tkdtudor.com/02taekwondo/TKDhistory/13organizations.htm
Song-wu, Park. US Taekwondo Union Faces Uncertain Future, The Korea Times: 1-27-04
tkdtudor.com/02taekwondo/TKDhistory/16TKDinUS.htm
Recognized and Certified through the following National and International Governing Body including other recognized organizations;
Kukkiwon (World Taekwondo Headquarters)
WTF (World Taekwondo Federation)
USAT (United States of America Taekwondo)
